Note for the master students of the Language Education School: The following texts for the English state exam will be followed by reading comprehension questions, grammar exercises and translation.

 Text 1

One of the foremost American entertainers of the first part of the twentieth century was a part-Cherokee Native American named Will Rogers (1879-1935). Rogers was born in territory that would later become the state of Oklahoma and spent much of his youth riding horses and mastering the use of the lariat. These skills were refined into an entertainment act based on fancy rope tricks interspersed with humorous anecdotes and witty remarks. Traveling widely as a vaudeville entertainer, Rogers had become a star act by 1915 with the Ziegfeld Follies, a famous stage show. In 1918 his stage skills led to a new career as a movie actor both in silent films and later in the "talkies."

In the early 1920s, Rogers embarked on another profession, this time as a journalist writing weekly newspaper columns that reached millions of people worldwide. Beginning in 1930 he also broadcast regular radio addresses. What distinguished his journalistic approach was his firsthand experience of ordinary people and places and a wry sense of humor, often debunking establishment figures and institutions. This poking fun at the serious side of life, combined with an optimistic homespun philosophy, gave him immense popular appeal. He became a national and international celebrity and acquired the unofficial status of a goodwill ambassador during his travels in Europe. He also had a strong philanthropic streak and devoted money and time to charitable causes.

Rogers also had a keen interest in flying. He often wrote about the development of aviation and made friends with trailblazing flyers such as Charles Lindbergh. Another pioneering aviator, Wiley Post, invited Rogers to join him in testing the viability of a commercial route between the United States and Asia. Tragically, both Rogers and Post were killed when their plane crashed in northern Alaska. Rogers's death was felt deeply throughout the United States and the public displays of mourning were heartfelt and widespread. The epitaph by his tomb is taken from one of his numerous quotable remarks and reminds us of the essential dignity of the man. It reads, "Never Met A Man I Didn't Like."

Text 2

The damming of river systems in the northwestern United States has had devastating effects on salmon. In the spring young salmon, called smolts, drift into rivers from smaller streams. They swim with the eurrent downstream heading for the Pacific Ocean. Before the large-scale construction of dams, the young salmon used the strong flow from melting snows to get to the sea in between six and twenty days. It is necessary to do this because during these days the smolts' bodies undergo the physiological changes for adaptation to salt water.

 Unfortunately, the current has become very slow due to the construction of numerous dams. Companies operating the dams also intentionally slow the current. They store the water from the melting snow until the winter, when more electric power is needed. The net result is that many of the young fish do not survive the now sixty-day trip to the sea. Consequently, there are fewer adult salmon to migrate back up the rivers for breeding. When it comes time for the salmon to return, they again face the problem of dams. As fewer adult salmon are able to get back to their cool upstream water, they fail to produce a sufficiently numerous new generation of salmon. This cycle could eventually lead to extinction of the fish.

 Attempts are being made to transport the young salmon downriver by barge. However, many scientists think that this artificial method of getting the fish to the sea kills more than it saves. Another suggestion, recently proposed by environmentalists, is to increase the rate of water flow. This would be a partial solution to the declining salmon numbers. One method of doing this would call for releasing water from upstream reservoirs. This would speed up the downstream movement of the smolts.

 Another method would be to reduce the water level in the reservoirs for a period in the spring when the smolts are migrating downstream. This would also increase the flow rate temporarily without requiring massive amounts of water and, thus, enable the young salmon to move downstream faster. Unfortunately, both of these proposals have met with criticism from the power companies.

 Text 3

 Psychologists have found that privately made resolutions are rarely followed, whereas a public commitment to achieve some goal, such as losing weight or giving up smoking, is likely to be much more effective. This is because the approval of others for reaching one's target is valued. In contrast, disapproval for failure can lead to feelings of shame.

 Advertising agencies have designed studies bearing out the truth of this observation. In their research, a group of strangers was bombarded with information about the qualities of a particular product. They were then asked to either announce out loud or write down privately whether they intended to buy the product. It was later discovered that those who publicly declared their intention to buy were considerably more likely to do so than those who affirmed their intentions in private.

 In another study, an experimenter claiming to represent a local utility company interviewed homeowners, telling them he was investigating ways in which energy consumption could be reduced. Half the subjects, randomly selected, were told that if they agreed to conserve energy, their names would be mentioned in an article published in the local newspaper; the remaining half were told their names would not be used. All those interviewed agreed to cooperate and signed a form either giving consent for their names to be used or stating that their names would not be used. Later in the year, the amount of gas consumed in each house was recorded. The owners who had agreed to their names being published had used significantly less gas than those who remained anonymous.

 Research investigating what happens when people sleep has shown that they typically journey through five distinct levels or stages of sleep. Each level corresponds to changes in body temperature, respiration and body movements, and electroencephalograph (EEG) patterns. EEG patterns refer to the patterns of electrical activity in the brain as measured by a device called an electroencephalograph.

 The first stage is a period of quiet sleep during which muscle tension decreases and the brain produces irregular, rapid waves. If woken at this time, a sleeper may jerk suddenly and deny having been asleep. In the second stage, breathing and the heart rate slow down and brain waves become larger. In the third and fourth stages, bodily functions decrease more and brain waves become even larger.

 The deepest sleep occurs in the fourth stage and is very difficult to awaken from. This is considered a regenerative period, when the body repairs itself. In fact, during illness people may fall immediately into a deep sleep because infection-fighting antibodies are produced in greater numbers in this stage. After a period of time in Stage 4, a sleeper ascends back through each of the stages. He or she then enters a new stage that is sometimes known as Stage 5, even though it is, in a sense, higher than Stage 1.

 The fifth stage is reached, judging by brain activity, when a person appears to be sleeping lightly as in Stage 1 but is very hard to rouse. Because of this, the stage is sometimes called "paradoxical sleep." During this stage, people exhibit what are known as rapid eye movements (REMs), and frequently their toes and facial muscles twitch, whereas the large muscles seem paralyzed. It is believed that during this stage most dreaming occurs. If something happens to awaken someone during this stage, the sleeper frequently recalls vivid dreams.

 During the course of an eight-hour period, most people seem to pass through five or six cycles of sleep. In the earlier cycles, sleepers typically descend down to Stage 4. However, after several complete cycles earlier in the night, they do not reenter the deeper stages, but fluctuate between REM and Stage 2.   As the end of the sleep period approaches, body temperature begins to rise and the breathing and heart rate normalize.

   Text 5

 Nature has always provided a stimulus for inventive minds. Early flying machines clearly were an attempt to emulate the freedom of birds. Architects and engineers have often consciously modeled buildings on forms found in nature. A more recent example of the inspiration given by nature is the invention of Velcro®. The inventor of this now common fastening device noticed that small burrs attached to his dog's coat grasped the hairs by means of tiny hooks. This led him to invent a synthetic fabric whose surfaces mimic the clasping properties of this natural seedpod.

 Animals and plants have evolved solutions to the kinds of problems that often interest engineers and designers. Much current research in material science is concerned with actively examining the natural world, especially at the molecular level, for inspiration to develop materials with novel properties. This relatively new field of study is sometimes known as biomimetics, since it consciously attempts to mimic nature.

 Researchers have investigated several interesting areas. For example, they have studied how the molecular structure of antler bone contributes to its amazing toughness, how the skin structure of a worm contributes to its ability to crawl, how the sea cucumber softens its skeleton and changes shape so that it can squeeze through tiny gaps in rocks, or what gives wood its high resistance to impact. These investigations have led to several breakthroughs in the development of composite materials with remarkable properties.

 Predictions for future inventions that may be developed from these lines of research include so-called smart structures that design and repair themselves in a similar way to a variety of processes in the natural world. For example, engineers have envisaged bridges that would detect areas heavily stressed by vehicle movement or wind. The bridge structure would then automatically add or move material to the weak areas until the stress is reduced. The same principle might be used to repair damaged buildings. Other new materials that have been imagined are substances that would copy photosynthesis in green plants in order to create new energy sources. The potential impact of biomimetic research is so great that the twenty-first century may come to be known as the "Age of Materials."

Text 6

Diamond value is based on four characteristics: carat, color, clarity, and cut. The size of a diamond is measured by carat weight. There are 100 points in a carat and 142 carats in an ounce. Each point above 1 carat is more valuable than each one below 1 carat. In other words, a stone that weighs more than 1 carat is more valuable per point than a stone that is smaller than 1 carat.

 The scale used for rating color begins with D, which means the gem is absolutely colorless and, therefore, the most valuable. E and F are almost colorless. All three are good for investment purposes. A stone rated between G and J is good for jewelry. Beyond J the stones take on a slightly yellowish color, which gets deeper as the grade declines.

 The clarity of a stone is determined by its lack of carbon spots, inner flaws, and surface blemishes. While most of these are invisible to the unaided eye, they do affect the diamond's brilliance. For jewelry, a diamond rated VVS1 (very, very slight imperfections) is as close to flawless as one will find. After that the scale goes toVVS2, VS1, VS2, SI1, SI2, I1, I2, and so on.

 The final characteristic is cut. When shaped- whether round, oval, emerald, marquise, pear, or heart- the diamond should be faceted so that light is directed into the depths of the prism and then reflected outward again. A well-cut diamond will separate the light into different colors when the light is reflected. Only stones of similar shape should have their reflective qualities compared, as some shapes are more reflective than others. The round shape is the most reflective.

 Text 7

 People who suffer from excessive drowsiness during the daytime may be victims of a condition known as "narcolepsy." Although most people may feel sleepy while watching TV or after eating a meal, narcoleptics may fall asleep at unusual or embarrassing times. They may doze while eating, talking, taking a shower, or even driving a car. Victims can be affected in one of two ways. Most narcoleptics have several sleeping periods during each day with alert periods in between. A minority of others feel drowsy almost all the time and are alert for only brief intervals. Many people with this condition also suffer from cataplexy- a form of muscular paralysis that can range from a mild weakness at the knees to complete immobility affecting the entire body. This condition lasts from a few seconds to several minutes and is often set off by intense emotions.

 No reliable data exist showing how many people have narcolepsy. Some estimates put the number as high as three hundred thousand in the United States alone. Researchers suggest that the problem may stem from the immune system's reacting abnormally to the brain's chemical processes. Further studies have shown a link between narcolepsy and a number of genes, although it is quite possible for an individual to have these genes and not develop the disease. There are also cases of twins where one member has narcolepsy but the other does not. Thus, an explanation based on genetics alone is not adequate.

 There is currently no cure for narcolepsy, so sufferers of this condition can only have their symptoms treated through a combination of counseling and drugs. The available drugs can help control the worst of the symptoms, but their administration has unwanted side effects such as increased blood pressure and heart rate and, sometimes, even increased sleepiness. It is clear that improved medications need to be developed.

 Text 8

 In the eleventh century, people noticed that if a small hole were put in one wall of a darkened room, then light coming through the aperture would make a faint picture of the scene outside on the opposite wall of the room. A room like this was called a camera obscura. Artists later used a box to create a camera obscura, with a lens in its opening to make the picture clearer. But it was not possible to preserve the image that was produced in the box.

 In 1727, Johann Heinrich Schulze mixed chalk, silver, and nitric acid in a bottle. He found that when the mixture was subjected to light, it became darker. In 1826, Joseph Nic6phore Ntepce put some paper dipped in a light-sensitive chemical into his camera obscura, which he left exposed in a window. The result was probably the first permanent photographic image.

 The image Niepce made was a negative, a picture where all the white parts are black and all the black parts are white. Later, Louis Daguerre found a way to reverse the black and white parts to make positive prints. But when he looked at the pictures in the light, the chemicals continued to react and the pictures went dark. In 1837, he found a way to fix the image. These images are known as daguerreotypes.

 Many developments of photographic equipment were made in the nineteenth century. Glass plates coated with light-sensitive chemicals were used to produce clear, sharp, positive prints on paper. In the 1870s, George Eastman proposed using rolls of paper film, coated with chemicals, to replace glass plates. Then, in 1888, Eastman began manufacturing the Kodak® camera, the first "modern" lightweight camera that people could carry and use.

 During the twentieth century, many technological improvements were made. One of the most important was color film. Color film is made from layers of chemicals that are sensitive to red, green, and blue light, from which all other colors can be made. Despite the fact that the space age has witnessed the creation of an array of technological marvels, even the ability to take photographs of distant galaxies from above the Earth's atmosphere via orbiting satellites, the basic principles of photography have not changed since Niepce took his first fuzzy negative pictures.

Text 9

 Generations of American school children have been taught the story of how the Great Fire of Chicago of October 1871 was started by Daisy, a cow belonging to one Mrs. O'Leary. The cow, stabled in a barn behind Mrs. O'Leary's house, apparently kicked over a kerosene lamp, which set fire to hay and other combustible materials stored there. The blaze quickly spread, and fanned by a strong southwest wind and aided by intensely dry conditions, the conflagration engulfed and entirely destroyed more than three square miles of built-up area. Almost one hundred thousand people were left homeless, and about three hundred lost their lives. Property damage was estimated at two hundred million dollars, an immense sum in those days.

 Soon after the fire, the O'Leary-cow story became an almost unchallenged truth and, over the years, took on the status of a modern-day myth - a staple ingredient in the fabric of American folklore. However, there are good reasons to believe that neither Mrs. O'Leary nor Daisy was culpable. First, a police reporter later claimed to have invented the whole story. Of course, this is not a conclusive refutation, but his reasoning was valid and his alternative suggestions credible. Furthermore, the testimony of one of the main witnesses, a neighbor called "Peg Leg" Sullivan, is now thought to be questionable. Some claim he invented the story to avoid censure, since he himself was not above suspicion and there were inconsistencies in his account. Other accusers have focused the blame on a variety of targets - some local boys smoking in the barn, a different neighbor, an unnamed terrorist organization, spontaneous combustion, and, most recently, an asteroid. This last theory gains credence from the fact that on the same night as the Chicago fire, neighboring states suffered more than a dozen major fires. One fire destroyed the entire town of Peshtigo, Wisconsin, with the loss of more than twelve hundred lives.

 Whatever the real origin of the fire, the truth is that it was inevitable, given the near-drought conditions of the time and the fact that much of the city consisted of densely packed wooden shacks served by an undermanned fire department. It seems that Mrs. O'Leary and her cow were perhaps no more than convenient and vulnerable scapegoats on which a devastated populace could center its frustrations.

 Every year about two million people visit Mount Rushmore, where the faces of four U.S. presidents were carved in granite by the sculptor Gutzon Borglum and his son. The creation of the Mount Rushmore monument took fourteen years- from 1927 to 1941- and nearly a million dollarsThese were times when money was difficult to come by and many people were jobless. To help him with this sculpture, Borglum hired laid-off workers from the closed-down mines in the Black Hills area. He taught these men to dynamite, drill, carve, and finish the granite as they were hanging in midair in his specially devised chairs, which had many safety features.

 Borglum used dynamite to remove 90 percent of the 450,000 tons of rock from the mountain quickly and relatively inexpensively. His workmen became so skilled that they could blast to within four inches of the finished surface and grade the contours of the facial features. Borglum was proud of the fact that no workers were killed or severely injured during the years of blasting and carving the granite. Considering the workers regularly used dynamite and heavy equipment, this was a remarkable feat.

 During the carving, many changes in the original design had to be made to keep the carved heads free of large fissures that were uncovered. However, not all the cracks could be avoided, so Borglum concocted a mixture of granite dust, white lead, and linseed oil to fill them.

 Every winter, water from melting snow gets into the fissures and expands as it freezes, making the fissures bigger. Consequently, every autumn maintenance work is done to refill the cracks. To preserve this national monument for future generations, the repairers swing out in space over a 500-foot drop and fix the monument with the same mixture that Borglum used.